The Social Patterns of a Two-Year Old

  While I was studying child development, I was fascinated by the research of Arnold Gesell, so I was excited when I discovered that the Gesell Institute of Human Development has a series of books that describe your child year by year. When Q-ball turned one, I posted one of my favorite bits from the book here, and at 18 months, I shared Gesell's theory of disequilbrium. (If you're still following links, here's my overview of Gesell's research.) As I just completed, Your Two-Year-Old, I wanted to again share my favorite figure what that book. 
   Using long-term observations, the Gesell Institute determined that at two-years-old, a child is much more likely to talk to adults than to other children.  In these interactions, the two-year-old will likely use two or three word phrases rather than single-word sentences. However, the youngster is still certainly controlling the conversation- choosing to not always answer when the adult addresses him or just repeating the adult's original comment.  If a two-year-old does speak to someone else his age, the conversation is typically an attempt to maintain control over his space or stuff- "no, mine!" or "me want ball."  While his verbalization is increasing overall, this is the last year of life that a child is more likely to say "no" through motor behavior rather than verbally.  When given a request that he simply does not wish to follow, he may just walk away, look away, or continue to play. 
   All this being said, the two-year-old's favorite person to talk to is himself!  This makes sense given that these little ones are still firmly in their egocentric phase.  This self-talk is often easily observed during independent play, especially imaginary play.  At times, this self-talk may move towards an adult when the child wants to brag about all of his accomplishments- cleaning up by himself, feeding his own bear, or using the toilet alone. 

What's your two-year-old talking about?

How a Baby Learns to Talk: Part III

This is the third part of a Science Friday series on how a baby learns to talk.  Check out the first post here and the second post here.

    We have looked at how babies begin to babble and then say specific words.  But, how do they know in what order to put the words?  While Q-ball isn't in this stage yet, she has started combining some signs with the correct word order.  For the phrases she uses, I assume she is mirroring the phrases that I use with her.
    However, research has shown (in a fancy experiment involving Sesame Street puppets...) that toddlers between 16-to-18 months recognize the importance of word order. Specifically, they can tell the difference between phrases like "Mama is feeding Q-ball" vs. "Q-ball is feeding Mama."  This assumed understanding of word order is further verified by the fact that the vast majority of toddlers' first two word phrases are in the proper order.  Think "more banana," "I want," "get down," etc.  As was mentioned in the first post of this series, Noam Chomsky's very widely accepted theory of Universal Grammar states that all humans are innately wired to know the general form that any language takes.  In the case of word order, Chomsky's theory tells us that humans innately know structure dependence, so toddlers' correct use of word order goes above and beyond mirroring the phrases of those around them and is, instead, part of the the human brain's innate capacity of language learning. 
     Following two-word phrases, toddlers go even deeper into forming and practicing grammar rules.  Much of the research and observation on the subject of language learning  actually focuses on the mistakes and pauses that young children make as part of the learning process.  For example, as toddlers form increasingly complex sentences, they typically pause between noun and verb phrases rather than pause in the middle of a phrase. ("I want...the blue pants" vs. I want the...blue pants.")  This examples shows researchers that, as part of structure dependence, humans innately seem to know various parts of speech within a language.
    Again focusing on the mistakes that young language learners make, researchers believe that humans innately know that changes change be made to the beginning or ending of a word.  In this case, toddlers typically overregularize. So, they will add "-s" to goose, deer, and foot.  Or, they will add "-ed"  to run, do, or sit.  Scientists believe that this is a child's way of creating and applying their own language rules.
    While grammar rules vary from language to language, the two rules mentioned above (specific parts of speech and adding beginning or endings to words) are part of Universal Grammar.  As such, all children, despite their native language, have been observed making these same advances in grammar development. 

Source:

Eliot, L. (1999). What's Going on in There? Bantam Books: NY, NY.
Crain, W. (2011). Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications. Prentice Hall:Boston.

How a Baby Learns to Talk Part II

This is the second part of a Science Friday series on how a baby learns to talk.  Check out the first post here.

     After practicing the formation of words through babbling, babies try to actually form words.  At 16 months, Q-ball is currently at this stage.  While we still have plenty of "eh! eh! eh!" noises when she wants to get our attention, she is starting to try to repeat words that she hears Daddy and I say.  With her active use of sign language, I can see that she is very eager to get her ideas across, so it makes sense that she wants to move beyond sign language to form words. 

   As stated in the first post of the series, humans are innately wired to create language.  Beyond this, scientists also believe that humans innately understand three critical ideas about words:

1. Words refer to a whole object, not a specific part.  (So, Q-ball knows that "book" means the whole book, not just the cover or pages.)
2. Words describe all like items, not just an individual item. (So, Q-ball knows that "book" does not just refer to the book that we read her before bedtime, but all objects with bound pages.)
3. A object just has one name.  

Practicing the word "percussion"

  Admittedly, when I read these rules, I started thinking of exceptions, but I imagine that they are critical rules for language learning.  These rules also made me wonder how exactly Q-ball would define "milk", but now that she is also saying "Mama" regularly, I won't spend to much energy pondering this question.

   With these rules in mind, between 12 and 18 months, babies practice saying a few words here and there.  They may practice some words, and then not say them again for sometime. Interestingly, researchers seem to believe that "fifty is the magic number" when it comes to speaking.  Once a child can say 50 words, she starts to add words very rapidly- often adding multiple words in a single day!

   Why does this "explosion" of words happen?  Between 13 and 20 months, scientists have used electrical focal testing to discover that children's brains grow increasingly specialized to respond to words.  Early in this period, they use part of their cerebral cortex to distinguish between words and sounds that they know and those they don't.  But, by 20 months, toddlers begin to activate a more specialized area of the left parietal lobe, which is the part of the brain that stores word meanings.  It's remarkable to think of all of this happening in your precious, growing child!

     Here are a few more quick, fun facts about a baby's first words:

• Most babies begin to understand the meaning of certain words (names, no, milk, etc) as early as 9 or 10 months.
• At 12 months, the average child knows about 70 words.
• At 12 months, the average child speaks 6 words.  
• Once a child understands the meaning of a certain word, there is typically a 5-month delay until he can speak that word.
• Between ages 2 and 6 years, it is estimated that children may learn up to 8 words in a single day. So, if you child is sleeping for 12 hours a day, that is more than one word every 2 hours!

   So, now that toddlers know all of these words, what happens next?  Check out a future Science Friday to learn about grammar learning in toddlers!

Source:

Eliot, L. (1999). What's Going on in There? Bantam Books: NY, NY.

How a Baby Learns to Talk: Part I

This is the first part of a Science Friday series that will focus on how a baby learns to talk.

    

   At 16 months, Q-ball is starting to babble and even talk a lot.  She's been saying "mama", "dada", "hot",  and a few other attempts at words for a few months now.  Recently, "uh-oh" was added and, she has loved practicing all of her animal noises.  And, in sign language, she is starting to put together two-word phrases ("diaper change," "more milk").  So, what, exactly is happening?  How does a baby learn to talk? 

   It turns out, it's a totally natural, instinctive process for humans.  Our brains are literally hard-wired with neurons (check out this old post for a brief overview of neurons) to understand and create language, just like any other daily task like seeing and hearing.  Scientists have concluded this for three reasons:

1. All children around the world have the same schedule for learning a language, whether it's English, Mandarin, or even sign language.  First, they learn single words, then two-word phrases, and then sentences.  
2. The brain has special neurons and centers completely devoted to language.  This was found when doctors started to document injuries that produced interesting changes in language (read about some here.)
3. Noam Chomsky has documented that all languages have a "Universal Grammar," that is, all languages have the same basic structure of noun, verbs, adjectives, and other parts of speech.  He concluded, then, that the human brain is structured to learn and create basic grammar rules.

Photo Credit: wikipedia.org

    However, even though learning a language is in a human's genes, it is life experiences that ensures it happens. There is a critical period for language learning. This is because children have far greater synaptic activity than adults (again check out this post if you want more details...) In some documented cases, children who are not exposed to language (sadly, many of these cases are due to abuse or neglect, but there is also a famous case in which the family did not realize their child was deaf until she was 32 years old) by about 6 or 7 years old, their lose their ability to master a language.  After this time, children may be able to learn a language, but they will not be as proficient as a native speaker.  And, in some cases, they may fail to ever learn to speak or sign at all. 

   Newborns possess an amazing ability to distinguish difference sounds.  Scientists have demonstrated that newborns can tell the difference between /pa/ and /ba/ and other similar sounds.  They can even tell the difference between foreign languages better than adults!  These amazing powers of newborns relate back to the theory that all humans will create language as our brains are literally hard-wired to do so.  Just talking to a newborn is the best way to activate his language learning capabilities.  

   Quickly, however, the brain starts to favor the language with which it is most exposed.  As time goes on, children lose the ability to distinguish the fine differences between phonemes and, thus, languages. 

   Beyond listening to other speak, babies also learn language by practicing it themselves.  They babble!  We may think that talking is pretty easy, but it requires lots of motor coordination. Babbling is a baby's way of exercising and experimenting with his tongue, lips, palate, and larynx. During this time, babies are actually undergoing physical changes as well. At birth, a human's vocal tract looks more like an ape's than a humans.  By six months, however, it has started to take a more human shape.  A baby's babbles reflect the language and even accent that he hears.  In one experiment, when a 12-month old was exposed to a female speaker for 15 minutes, he actually started to change his pronunciation to match hers! 

  So, what happens after babbling?  Actual words!  Come back soon to read more about the science of a baby's first words.

Source:
Eliot, L. (1999). What's Going on in There? Bantam Books: NY, NY.

Reading to a Young Toddler, the Montessori Way

  We love books! Daddy and I have always had a full selection of books in the house and are always in need of a new bookcase.  So, naturally, we wanted to share books with Q-ball. In fact, the theme of Q-ball's baby shower was books!  While we read to Q-ball from her birth, she did not begin to show her true interest in reading until about 11 months.  Since that time, she reads far more than Mama and Daddy!

   Within Q-ball's current space are two shelves full of books.  I had debated putting out so many, but she always seems interested and is able to "clean up" with some reminders, so I leave the bulk of our board books available.  We do, however, rotate books from the library in and out to introduce new topics and to prevent constant repetitiveness (for Mama and Q-ball!).

   However, I recently realized that I had not researched Dr. Montessori's thoughts on books for infants and toddlers. The goal of reading to this age group, according to Montessori experts, is to introduce new vocabulary words, model the use of books, and to foster a connection between caregiver and child through reading.

   Here are some of the tips I found for creating your own Montessori-inspired library:

Reading with her uncle

•  Board books are best for this young age.  But, high-quality children's book with regular pages and dust covers should also be introduced to the child with an adult's supervision.
• Books should be easily accessible to children in a basket or low shelf.  Special books, however, should be stored away from the child and only brought out when they are read.
• Proper care and respect of books should be modeled to children- how to turn the pages, how to hold the book, and how to return the book to its location.
• As toddlers are actively looking to learn new words, books can be used to extend their vocabulary. These books should have simple, large images matching the words with the pictures.
• As with toys, children should have access to favorite books, but there should also be a rotation of new books to keep children engaged. Only a few books should be available to a child at any given time. (To see the science behind this, check out this Science Friday.)
• When reading to a child, make sure that you are interested! A child's love of books will come when it is modeled by his role models. Likewise, ensure your child sees you reading for your own pleasure.
• Topics and pictures in books should represent a variety of cultures and topics.
• Books should stay focused on reality and shy away from topics of animals that talk and sing. Young toddlers are still working to figure out our real, everyday world, and fantasy stories can confuse them.  I must say these can be harder to find in board books! But, I like this quote from Micheal Olaf's site about the importance of this.

 We should check that they [books] present reality, since at this age children are trying to make sense of the environment and the life around them. There is nothing more extraordinary and interesting than our own daily life. Fantasy can come later—after reality has been experienced and absorbed.—Dr. Silvana Montanaro

 

   Based upon this research, I'm going to make a few changes. For one thing, I'm packing away many of the books we have out.  I have out way too many right now!  And, I want to start reading more of the "special" books with Q-ball to ensure she knows how to care for these books as well.

Does your child love reading?  What does reading look like at your house? 

Sources:

Olaf, M. (2010). The joyful child. Montessori from birth to three. Retrieved from http://www.michaelolaf.net/1JC13language.html.

Lillard, P.P. & Jessen, L.L. (2003). Montessori from the start: The child at home, from birth to age three. Random House: NY.

 

An Infant's Role in Language Learning

    Q-ball is increasingly starting to experiment with language.  She is speaking more often (Mamamama, Dada, hi, bye-bye, Baba (our cat)), and it is obvious that she is more focused on what we are saying.  She is now able to respond to multiple commands and points to images in books when they are named.  Lots of recent research encourages parents to read to their children and speak to them during daily activities. By exposing children to language in these ways, parents are helping children develop their own lexicon.  These methods are part of the larger learning theory known as "scaffolding."  First developed by Leo Vygotsky, the theory stresses the importance of social interactions in learning and states that many activities can only be mastered with guidance from an adult or "more capable peer."

    Within my education experience, I have studied and used Vygotsky and other "constructivist" ideas rather extensively.  I was very intrigued, then, to read about the intentionality theory of language development.  Instead of focusing on the role of the adult in language acquisition, it examines the role of the child (imagine that!)  The authors of the study state that "scaffolding...and relative economic resources...ignore the child's intentionality, as a person with thoughts and feelings in consciousness that are about something. It is what a child's intentional states are about, and children's strong inclinations to express their intentionality by acting in order to share intentional states with other persons, that determine why and how language is learned."

   I thought this statement was fascinating!  And, how true! I read quite a bit of research about child development and, strangely, the child's thoughts and feelings are rarely taken into account.  The research is much more likely to focus on how adults can influence the children's actions.  This is clearly important for advances in educational practices.  However, as a parent, I am most excited about Q-ball's increase in language development because I am now better able to understand her thoughts and feelings.  

    Of course, the intentionality theory isn't just heart-warming.  It is also based on research!  Here's a rundown of the supporting evidence the authors found through longitudinal observations of 12 children in New York (they were observed from age 9 months until 15 months):

• In daily conversations, mothers were much more likely to talk AFTER their children initiated the conversations.  Unlike the scaffolding model of language learning, the mothers were not guiding their children's conversations.
• Only about one-third of a children's speech is in response to something the mothers initiated. The vast majority of the time, children initiated their own conversations.  Thus, "Participation in these earliest conversations was motivated by a child's own cognitive agenda to express something in mind, and conversations functioned to allow the children to direct the flow of the interaction in order to express and thereby share what was relevant to them."
• Mothers typically respond by simply acknowledging or clarifying the child's comments. They are not "scaffolding" in that they are not providing additional words or working to expand the children's statements.   

This kid definitely is the primary driver of most things in our household!

   I should certainly clarify that the intentionality theory is not stating that reading and speaking to your child have no effect on language learning.  Quite the opposite!  Maximum exposure to language is still essential and incredibly beneficial.  This theory differs from others in that the child is the primary driver in his own language development.  He listens to everything around him and then picks out words that are relevant to him.  An example might be that the mother is working very hard to teach her child the word "broccoli."  She practices every day by giving the baby broccoli and repeating the word over and over, but he shows no interest. But, on just one occasion, she gives the baby a "cookie."  Guess what word he starts repeating every day!  Cookie- something in which he is very interested!

   This theory hasn't changed the way that I will be using language around Q-ball, but it does make me even more excited to see what she will say next!

How has your child's language development allowed you to better understand his thoughts and feelings?

Source:

Bloom, L.  Margulis, C., Tinker, E., & Fujita, N. (1996). Early conversations and word learning: Contributions from child and adult. Child Development, 67, 7,3154-31.