Music and a Baby's Brain

  As I have mentioned in several of my updates, Q-ball loves music.  "Music" was one of the first signs she made, and she quickly started asking to listen to music.  We get all sorts of CDs from the library (rather archaic in these modern times, I know...).  Sometimes we have the music playing in the background, and sometimes we dance along.  I've also created a music box for her with several instruments (maracas, a tambourine, xylophone, a castanet, and bells) that we take out every few weeks.

Q-ball, actively engaged with music.

   We explore music because Q-ball likes it.  But, I know that I've always heard lots reports about parents playing music for babies, even fetuses, because of its benefits to a developing brain.  I was surprised to read in Einstein Never Used Flash Cards, then, that these benefits are largely based on studies that have been overblown by the media.  The basis for what is now commonly referred to as the "Mozart Effect" (i.e., that idea that listening to music enhances brain development or increases a person's IQ) started after a study in 1993 at the University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh demonstrated that students received higher tests scores after listening to Mozart.  
     While the media latched on to this point, the lead researcher tried to point out that the participants in the study were college students (so, not babies), the effects only lasted 10 to 15 minutes after listening to Mozart (so, not permanent brain changes), and the test only looked at spatial intelligence (so, just one tiny aspect of intelligence.)  More importantly, in 1999, Nature and Psychological Science officially renounced the findings from the original Mozart study!  Despite many attempts, other researchers were never able to repeat the original findings.  Obviously, no one told the many music and toy manufacturers that advertise with these findings today!
   But, just because music doesn't increase a baby's IQ, doesn't mean that there are not benefits.  And, it certainly doesn't mean that babies don't notice music.  While the research into this field is still rather new, studies have confirmed the following:

• Humans are innately musical and, even as infants, can use music as a form of communication. (We are the only such species.) 
• Infants listen carefully to music and can pick up even subtle changes.  Research has shown music alters a baby's heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration.
• Brain responses to music are identical in adults and in infants, proving that even at this young age, the brain is able to process music.
• All cultures seem to have motherese in which people speak to infants musical tones. (To read more about motherese, check out this post.)
• Early introduction to music does affect the organization of a person's musical brain.  So, early exposure to music may increase the likelihood that a person may be more musically inclined later in life.
• Studies have shown that music can be used as a reinforcement to encourage learning.  Premature newborns have been taught to strengthen sucking, leading to their eventual ability to self-feed.  Music is also positively used to "cue" various activities to help schedule a toddler or baby's day.
• Music can enhance listening skills, language development, motor coordination, and cooperation.

   So, how can you provide these wonderful benefits for your child?  The benefits of music are most seen when children are actively involved.  While music played in the background can change create a certain mood in a room, it does not necessarily encourage active engagement by the child.  To play an active role, a child should be encouraged to dance, sing, or make music themselves.  Even small steps like taking the time to point out changes in a piece of music that is playing in the background increases a child's active engagement with music.  
    Despite the mixed results from research, everyone seems to agree that music is a great and innately human way to bond.  So, perhaps the best benefit from music is an addition opprotunity to bond with your child!

Sources:
Fox, D.B. (2000).  Music and the baby's brain: Early experiences. Music Educators Journal, 87(2), 23-27.
Hirsh-Pasek, K. & Golinkoff, R.M. (2003). Einstein never used flash cards. Rodale: USA.
Hodges, D.A. (2000). Implications of music and brain research. Music Educators Journal, 87(2), 17-22.
Standley, J.M. (2001). The power of contingent music for infant learning. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 149, 65-71.

How a Baby Learns to Talk: Part III

This is the third part of a Science Friday series on how a baby learns to talk.  Check out the first post here and the second post here.

    We have looked at how babies begin to babble and then say specific words.  But, how do they know in what order to put the words?  While Q-ball isn't in this stage yet, she has started combining some signs with the correct word order.  For the phrases she uses, I assume she is mirroring the phrases that I use with her.
    However, research has shown (in a fancy experiment involving Sesame Street puppets...) that toddlers between 16-to-18 months recognize the importance of word order. Specifically, they can tell the difference between phrases like "Mama is feeding Q-ball" vs. "Q-ball is feeding Mama."  This assumed understanding of word order is further verified by the fact that the vast majority of toddlers' first two word phrases are in the proper order.  Think "more banana," "I want," "get down," etc.  As was mentioned in the first post of this series, Noam Chomsky's very widely accepted theory of Universal Grammar states that all humans are innately wired to know the general form that any language takes.  In the case of word order, Chomsky's theory tells us that humans innately know structure dependence, so toddlers' correct use of word order goes above and beyond mirroring the phrases of those around them and is, instead, part of the the human brain's innate capacity of language learning. 
     Following two-word phrases, toddlers go even deeper into forming and practicing grammar rules.  Much of the research and observation on the subject of language learning  actually focuses on the mistakes and pauses that young children make as part of the learning process.  For example, as toddlers form increasingly complex sentences, they typically pause between noun and verb phrases rather than pause in the middle of a phrase. ("I want...the blue pants" vs. I want the...blue pants.")  This examples shows researchers that, as part of structure dependence, humans innately seem to know various parts of speech within a language.
    Again focusing on the mistakes that young language learners make, researchers believe that humans innately know that changes change be made to the beginning or ending of a word.  In this case, toddlers typically overregularize. So, they will add "-s" to goose, deer, and foot.  Or, they will add "-ed"  to run, do, or sit.  Scientists believe that this is a child's way of creating and applying their own language rules.
    While grammar rules vary from language to language, the two rules mentioned above (specific parts of speech and adding beginning or endings to words) are part of Universal Grammar.  As such, all children, despite their native language, have been observed making these same advances in grammar development. 

Source:

Eliot, L. (1999). What's Going on in There? Bantam Books: NY, NY.
Crain, W. (2011). Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications. Prentice Hall:Boston.

How a Baby Learns to Talk Part II

This is the second part of a Science Friday series on how a baby learns to talk.  Check out the first post here.

     After practicing the formation of words through babbling, babies try to actually form words.  At 16 months, Q-ball is currently at this stage.  While we still have plenty of "eh! eh! eh!" noises when she wants to get our attention, she is starting to try to repeat words that she hears Daddy and I say.  With her active use of sign language, I can see that she is very eager to get her ideas across, so it makes sense that she wants to move beyond sign language to form words. 

   As stated in the first post of the series, humans are innately wired to create language.  Beyond this, scientists also believe that humans innately understand three critical ideas about words:

1. Words refer to a whole object, not a specific part.  (So, Q-ball knows that "book" means the whole book, not just the cover or pages.)
2. Words describe all like items, not just an individual item. (So, Q-ball knows that "book" does not just refer to the book that we read her before bedtime, but all objects with bound pages.)
3. A object just has one name.  

Practicing the word "percussion"

  Admittedly, when I read these rules, I started thinking of exceptions, but I imagine that they are critical rules for language learning.  These rules also made me wonder how exactly Q-ball would define "milk", but now that she is also saying "Mama" regularly, I won't spend to much energy pondering this question.

   With these rules in mind, between 12 and 18 months, babies practice saying a few words here and there.  They may practice some words, and then not say them again for sometime. Interestingly, researchers seem to believe that "fifty is the magic number" when it comes to speaking.  Once a child can say 50 words, she starts to add words very rapidly- often adding multiple words in a single day!

   Why does this "explosion" of words happen?  Between 13 and 20 months, scientists have used electrical focal testing to discover that children's brains grow increasingly specialized to respond to words.  Early in this period, they use part of their cerebral cortex to distinguish between words and sounds that they know and those they don't.  But, by 20 months, toddlers begin to activate a more specialized area of the left parietal lobe, which is the part of the brain that stores word meanings.  It's remarkable to think of all of this happening in your precious, growing child!

     Here are a few more quick, fun facts about a baby's first words:

• Most babies begin to understand the meaning of certain words (names, no, milk, etc) as early as 9 or 10 months.
• At 12 months, the average child knows about 70 words.
• At 12 months, the average child speaks 6 words.  
• Once a child understands the meaning of a certain word, there is typically a 5-month delay until he can speak that word.
• Between ages 2 and 6 years, it is estimated that children may learn up to 8 words in a single day. So, if you child is sleeping for 12 hours a day, that is more than one word every 2 hours!

   So, now that toddlers know all of these words, what happens next?  Check out a future Science Friday to learn about grammar learning in toddlers!

Source:

Eliot, L. (1999). What's Going on in There? Bantam Books: NY, NY.

How a Baby Learns to Talk: Part I

This is the first part of a Science Friday series that will focus on how a baby learns to talk.

    

   At 16 months, Q-ball is starting to babble and even talk a lot.  She's been saying "mama", "dada", "hot",  and a few other attempts at words for a few months now.  Recently, "uh-oh" was added and, she has loved practicing all of her animal noises.  And, in sign language, she is starting to put together two-word phrases ("diaper change," "more milk").  So, what, exactly is happening?  How does a baby learn to talk? 

   It turns out, it's a totally natural, instinctive process for humans.  Our brains are literally hard-wired with neurons (check out this old post for a brief overview of neurons) to understand and create language, just like any other daily task like seeing and hearing.  Scientists have concluded this for three reasons:

1. All children around the world have the same schedule for learning a language, whether it's English, Mandarin, or even sign language.  First, they learn single words, then two-word phrases, and then sentences.  
2. The brain has special neurons and centers completely devoted to language.  This was found when doctors started to document injuries that produced interesting changes in language (read about some here.)
3. Noam Chomsky has documented that all languages have a "Universal Grammar," that is, all languages have the same basic structure of noun, verbs, adjectives, and other parts of speech.  He concluded, then, that the human brain is structured to learn and create basic grammar rules.

Photo Credit: wikipedia.org

    However, even though learning a language is in a human's genes, it is life experiences that ensures it happens. There is a critical period for language learning. This is because children have far greater synaptic activity than adults (again check out this post if you want more details...) In some documented cases, children who are not exposed to language (sadly, many of these cases are due to abuse or neglect, but there is also a famous case in which the family did not realize their child was deaf until she was 32 years old) by about 6 or 7 years old, their lose their ability to master a language.  After this time, children may be able to learn a language, but they will not be as proficient as a native speaker.  And, in some cases, they may fail to ever learn to speak or sign at all. 

   Newborns possess an amazing ability to distinguish difference sounds.  Scientists have demonstrated that newborns can tell the difference between /pa/ and /ba/ and other similar sounds.  They can even tell the difference between foreign languages better than adults!  These amazing powers of newborns relate back to the theory that all humans will create language as our brains are literally hard-wired to do so.  Just talking to a newborn is the best way to activate his language learning capabilities.  

   Quickly, however, the brain starts to favor the language with which it is most exposed.  As time goes on, children lose the ability to distinguish the fine differences between phonemes and, thus, languages. 

   Beyond listening to other speak, babies also learn language by practicing it themselves.  They babble!  We may think that talking is pretty easy, but it requires lots of motor coordination. Babbling is a baby's way of exercising and experimenting with his tongue, lips, palate, and larynx. During this time, babies are actually undergoing physical changes as well. At birth, a human's vocal tract looks more like an ape's than a humans.  By six months, however, it has started to take a more human shape.  A baby's babbles reflect the language and even accent that he hears.  In one experiment, when a 12-month old was exposed to a female speaker for 15 minutes, he actually started to change his pronunciation to match hers! 

  So, what happens after babbling?  Actual words!  Come back soon to read more about the science of a baby's first words.

Source:
Eliot, L. (1999). What's Going on in There? Bantam Books: NY, NY.

An Infant's Role in Language Learning

    Q-ball is increasingly starting to experiment with language.  She is speaking more often (Mamamama, Dada, hi, bye-bye, Baba (our cat)), and it is obvious that she is more focused on what we are saying.  She is now able to respond to multiple commands and points to images in books when they are named.  Lots of recent research encourages parents to read to their children and speak to them during daily activities. By exposing children to language in these ways, parents are helping children develop their own lexicon.  These methods are part of the larger learning theory known as "scaffolding."  First developed by Leo Vygotsky, the theory stresses the importance of social interactions in learning and states that many activities can only be mastered with guidance from an adult or "more capable peer."

    Within my education experience, I have studied and used Vygotsky and other "constructivist" ideas rather extensively.  I was very intrigued, then, to read about the intentionality theory of language development.  Instead of focusing on the role of the adult in language acquisition, it examines the role of the child (imagine that!)  The authors of the study state that "scaffolding...and relative economic resources...ignore the child's intentionality, as a person with thoughts and feelings in consciousness that are about something. It is what a child's intentional states are about, and children's strong inclinations to express their intentionality by acting in order to share intentional states with other persons, that determine why and how language is learned."

   I thought this statement was fascinating!  And, how true! I read quite a bit of research about child development and, strangely, the child's thoughts and feelings are rarely taken into account.  The research is much more likely to focus on how adults can influence the children's actions.  This is clearly important for advances in educational practices.  However, as a parent, I am most excited about Q-ball's increase in language development because I am now better able to understand her thoughts and feelings.  

    Of course, the intentionality theory isn't just heart-warming.  It is also based on research!  Here's a rundown of the supporting evidence the authors found through longitudinal observations of 12 children in New York (they were observed from age 9 months until 15 months):

• In daily conversations, mothers were much more likely to talk AFTER their children initiated the conversations.  Unlike the scaffolding model of language learning, the mothers were not guiding their children's conversations.
• Only about one-third of a children's speech is in response to something the mothers initiated. The vast majority of the time, children initiated their own conversations.  Thus, "Participation in these earliest conversations was motivated by a child's own cognitive agenda to express something in mind, and conversations functioned to allow the children to direct the flow of the interaction in order to express and thereby share what was relevant to them."
• Mothers typically respond by simply acknowledging or clarifying the child's comments. They are not "scaffolding" in that they are not providing additional words or working to expand the children's statements.   

This kid definitely is the primary driver of most things in our household!

   I should certainly clarify that the intentionality theory is not stating that reading and speaking to your child have no effect on language learning.  Quite the opposite!  Maximum exposure to language is still essential and incredibly beneficial.  This theory differs from others in that the child is the primary driver in his own language development.  He listens to everything around him and then picks out words that are relevant to him.  An example might be that the mother is working very hard to teach her child the word "broccoli."  She practices every day by giving the baby broccoli and repeating the word over and over, but he shows no interest. But, on just one occasion, she gives the baby a "cookie."  Guess what word he starts repeating every day!  Cookie- something in which he is very interested!

   This theory hasn't changed the way that I will be using language around Q-ball, but it does make me even more excited to see what she will say next!

How has your child's language development allowed you to better understand his thoughts and feelings?

Source:

Bloom, L.  Margulis, C., Tinker, E., & Fujita, N. (1996). Early conversations and word learning: Contributions from child and adult. Child Development, 67, 7,3154-31.

Baby's First Words

    Q-ball has started saying "hi" a lot lately, and she typically says it while waving and/or when we move into a new location or something or someone passes us.  This is pretty typically of baby's first words- the words are very contextualized.  Studies have shown that babies less than one year old can use words like "car," "dog," and "bath." in very specific situations.  Piaget noted that, ""an early word like 'mommy' [may] signify (among other things, depending on the context), not a class of objects, but simply that the child wants something."  Thus, the baby does not necessarily know that "mommy" is "mommy," but, instead, that it means he'll get something.  This line of reasoning seems pretty on track with what I'm currently observing with Q-ball.  In addition to hi, she will wail out "mamamamama" a few times a day. It's directed towards me, so I could assume that she's calling me by name, but, really, I think she just wants to cuddle, see something on the counter, or, most likely, nurse. 

   But, one researcher looked to see if children under the age of one are capable of learning decontextualized words.  For his work, the researcher had parents ""train" their children on the words (apple, ball, cup, duck, fish, hat, keys, socks, bird, book, car, chair, coat, dog, shoes, toast) for 10 minutes, 4 times a week using picture cards and board books from 9 months of age until 12 months of age.  During testing, the researcher used novel auditory and visual cues (translation: a different picture of the object and a voice that wasn't Mama or Daddy's) and timed the infants' reaction time to determine understanding of the word.  

Photo credit: http://ananaddoush.net/

    The experiments revealed two main ideas (might have-read further) : 1) understanding of the words greatly increases from 9 to 12 months, even without training (but slightly more with training) and 2) that a 1-year old can, indeed, learn to understand words out of the context with which he typically knows the word (for this the trained babies did quite a bit better, but we're talking 2 out of 6 words vs. 5 out of 6 words...)  It's interesting to note that baby chimpanzees and parrots can still outperform the trained babies linguistically. 

    Still, the results are not necessarily clear.  First of all, what does it actually tell us about the language abilities of infants?  The researcher is not sure. He does believe that it signals that the largely accepted belief that baby's abilities to learn new words rapidly improves after 12-months because they have a newly "[attained] insight" into language is not necessarily true.  But, he admits that the results of his test could simply be a result of the fact that "trained" babies had actually just been trained to respond to tests.  Thus, they actually don't have an understanding of "car," but they know to look at cards.  On the other hand, maybe the parents really did teach their babies these 6 words. 

   So, what do I take from this experiment?  Frankly, not much.  If you regularly read my blog, you'll likely assume (correctly) that I'm not a big fan of training babies.  They have much better things to do- like playing, eating, sleeping, eating, playing, and pooping.  Q-ball will learn what a car is- even if it's at 13 months instead of 10 months.  And, she'll learn to wave at our neighbor instead of his mailbox.  Who cares if it takes an extra two months?

Source:

Schafer, G. (2005). Infants can learn decontextualized words before their first birthday. Child Development, 76(1), 87-96.

What Does a Baby See in the Mirror?

      For about the past two weeks, whenever we pass in front of a mirror, Q-ball waves at our reflection.  I've assumed that this means that means she recognizes our reflection, which made me think that she realizes that the people in the mirror are actually us.  Well, I guess that's why I'm not leading any research projects in child development.  Those that are published psychologists found that it is actually much later- around age 2- that a person can fully identify himself by his reflection.  I suppose this makes sense.  Understanding the concept of a reflection could be a pretty tricky idea- it obviously entails more than the physical ability to see one's self in the mirror, but also to understand that that person is how others see you at that exact moment.  Whew... 

    However, this is not an ability to develops overnight.  It is a skill and understanding that develops overtime, apparently starting at about 3-months.  Babies at this age gaze at their own reflections longer than they will look at the image of another person, with whom they are more likely to smile and vocalize, demonstrating the natural human desire for socialization.  By 4-months, babies appear to be able to distinguish the movement of their legs in a mirror, demonstrating that their ability to self-identify is not limited to faces. Additionally, this ability proves that babies are able to make connections between visual tasks and action tasks.  At 6-months, babies clearly prefer an actual mirror image of themselves to one that is distorted or blurred. 

    Still, none of these tasks show that babies see their reflections as actual representations of themselves or what they look like to others.  To study this point, most researchers use the "surprise-mark test." In this test, a sticker or other mark is placed on a baby's or toddler's face (some researchers have taken this test further and put the mark on legs, although the results have been the same). The baby or toddler is then shown his reflection. If he attempts to touch or remove the sticker, it is deemed that he passes the test and truly understands that a reflection is actually him in his current state.  Typically, sometime between 18-months and 24-months, toddlers are able to pass this test.  

    However, some researchers believe that simply passing the surprise-mark test is not an indication that an toddler has a complete understand of self.  They believe that the idea of "self" is composed of multiple self-concepts- the past, present, and future self.  An 18-month old that reaches for the sticker in the surprise test, understands her present self.  However, if she is shown a video of herself with the sticker 3-minutes after it was taken, she would not reach for the sticker.  Children at this age can only understand a single image of themselves.  It is not until age 4 that children can understand multiple concepts of self.  

    So, I was right to conclude that Q-ball, at 10-months, does have some idea that the person in the mirror is her, but just on the most basic level.  It will be interesting to observe her changing reactions overtime!  And, maybe I'll even conduct my own sticker test.

Does your little one like to look in the mirror?  How does he react to his reflection? Have you conducted your own sticker test???

Sources:

Miyazaki, M. & Hiraki, K. (2006). Delayed intermodal contingency affects young children's recognition of their current self. Child Development, 77(3). 736-750. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3696557

Nielsen, M., Suddendorf, T., & Slaughter, V. Mirror self-recognition beyond the face (2006). Child Development, 77(1). 176-185. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3696697

Rochat, P. & Striano, T. (2002)  Who's in the mirror? Self-other discrimination in specular images by four- and nine-month-old infants. Child Development, 73(1). 35-46. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3696429

   

What Can Your Baby Remember?

    First of all, a rant and confession- I missed last Science Friday, but it was not for lack of trying. I wanted to write a post about infant hair growth as I constantly get comments about Q-ball being a boy, despite the pink, heart-covered onesies, but after hours of research, the most I could conclude was, "babies' hair will grow in time..."  Pathetic. There appears to be one article that contains the information I was seeking, but none of the databases to which I have access had a copy. So, if you have access to databases of medical journals, let me know, and maybe we can work together!

   And, now to this Science Friday- For about a week, Q-ball's favorite toy was her pink monkey; another week it was her wooden spoon, and another week it was a cloth book.  Few items have remained favorites.  So, what changes?  As we could have imagined, a lot is going on inside Q-ball's growing brain that is affecting her memory and, likely, explains why those toys just aren't so great anymore.

   To explore this topic I'll have to give a VERY brief and basic overview of the development of the brain in regards to memory.  As has been mentioned in nearly all of my Science Friday posts, babies have an underdeveloped central nervous system.  This explains their lack of motor skills, inability to maintain visual focus, rhythmical motions like head-banging, and their poor memory.  Neurons are nerve cells which transmit (via an electrical impulse of known as a synapse) and store all of the information in our brains. Our experiences shape neural activity- the concept of learning to roll a ball, for example, literally re-shapes and strengthens synapses within our brains. When babies don't use certain synapses, they will actually disappear! But, do not worry, humans overproduce neurons and are meant to lose many throughout childhood. In fact, synapses in the visual and auditory regions of the brain of babies 4 to 12 months are 150% of that of an adults! This proves how much information babies are able to absorb throughout the day. I know that Q-ball's everyday explorations and observations are quite literally directly influencing her brain development.

     Many, many parts of our brain are involved in memory. Each of these sections of the brain develops at different times, and, subsequently, a human baby's ability to use each section for memory develops over time.  The first memories humans have are composed of habits and conditioned responses and are stored in the spinal cord and brain stem. In fact, fetuses in their third trimester have been able to demonstrate basic memory through reflex movements. When a loud sound is played close to Mama's belly, the fetus will likely jump at first.  But, eventually, he habituates (a term psychologists use for just getting use to something, and thus, no longer responding) to this noise and responds less and less.  After birth, conditioning simple reflexes continues to be the primary method of memory for young babies. When she was between 2 to 3 months, Q-ball loved laying under her mobile. When I placed her under it, it was clear that she remembered that if she moved in certain ways, she'd be able to get those little animals above her to move!  Research has shown that a 2-month old can remember how to move a mobile for just a day or so, but by 6-months, babies can remember how to move the same mobile, even if they have not seen it for up to 2 weeks!

        Next, the cerebral cortex further matures, which includes the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is responsible for many of our actions on a daily basis, but in regards to our discussion on memory, it helps us identify new information.  By 6 to 9 months, babies seem to have an especially acute sense of what is new. This explains why Q-ball is no longer impressed with the spatula that was yesterday's coolest-thing-ever. She has habituated it, and she is craving more novel objects.  In one experiment, two groups of 6-month old infants were shown pictures of monkeys' faces.  Parents of babies in one group continued to regularly show them pictures of these monkeys until the two groups were again shown pictures of monkeys at 9-months. At this time, babies in the group who were regularly shown pictures were actually able to identify monkeys they had never seen before just by seeing their faces in pictures. Even people that work with the monkeys regularly cannot necessarily do that.

     So, how am I supposed to keep Q-ball engaged at home? First of all, I am careful to not play all my cards at once. So, many of the Christmas gifts are still in the closet to be slowly introduced, allowing me to regularly introduce new items. Not only does this keep her out of my hair focused for a short period, but it also helps build new synapses or at least ensure she's not losing them all. Secondly, it's important to not garnish the idea of "novel" to an infant. It does not need to involve expensive, electronic, noisy, "toy of the year" toys. When Q-ball found one of Daddy's paintbrushes, it was the best, most awesome paintbrush she had ever seen!  Mainly because it was the only paintbrush she had ever seen!  We've realized that basic household items- kitchen tools, crafting items, and containers- also make amazing baby (and cat) toys.  Finally, some evidence exists that babies are very particular about where they have seen certain items or had specific experiences.  As such, sometimes just moving some objects to a different room or a different shelf might make them seem novel.  

      Constantly rotating and introducing new objects is not easy. Especially when you only have a few extra minutes during naps or after baby falls asleep.  But, realizing that you are helping give your little one new experiences and shaping her brain makes it worth the effort.  

Sources:

Eliot, L. (1999). What's going on in there? How the brain and mind develop in the first five years of life. Bantam Books: NY.

Gredler, M. E. (2009). Learning and instruction: Theory into practice. Pearson: New Jersey.

Mayell, H. (2005, May 22). Babies recognize faces better than adults, study says. National geographic news. Retrieved from http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/03/0321_050321_babies.html

     

Head-Banging and Rocking in Babies

   At almost exactly 9-months, Q-ball started head-bopping, bouncing, and plain just rocking out by herself.  She was clearly creating some pretty awesome tunes in her head.  Sometimes she'd start when she was supporting herself on a chair; sometimes while she was sitting, using her wooden spoon as a drumstick; and sometimes mid-crawl she'd just start rocking back and forth, like a Olympic sprinter in his box before a race.  She always started to display some head rocking activity before nap or bedtime- while we were rocking in our chair, she would gently exaggerate the movement.  So, what's going on?

Credit: Schlinger, H

   First of all, these "rhythmical stereotypies" as famed infant development researcher Esther Thelen (I've discussed her work previously here) termed them, are totally normal for infants under 1 year.  While researching the topic, it seemed that many nervous parents look into what they fear are abnormal behaviors.  But, have no fear!  These movements are actually are of your baby's neuromuscular maturation (i.e. your brain being able to control muscle movement vs. movement by reflex.)  In fact, as I will explain, some studies have show that the more rhythmical stereotypies (especially head banging and head rolling) a baby displays, the better. 

   Thelen actually identified 47 different movement patterns as rhythmical stereotypies, grouping them into four different categories- leg and feet movements, torso movements, arms, hands, and finger movements, and head and face movements.  The most common movements are kicking, rubbing feet against the floor, waving arms, and banging hands against the floor.  Head banging and head rolling (which seem to be most worrisome to parents) are also forms of rhythmical stereotypies.  Hand gazing is yet another example- one that Q-ball commonly also practices.  These movements typically start at about 3 months (the time when reflexes start to decline) and peak at around nine months (which is now for Q-ball!) 

     Because nearly all healthy babies exhibit these movements, most researchers agree they occur innately in humans.  But, the environment also appears to play a role.  When I read this, I realized that this was true in Q-ball's case.  I first noticed her hand gazing practice while I was breastfeeding her when she was about 4 months old.  Even now, she is most likely to make this movement when she is breastfeeding or when she is in her highchair.  Similarly, the gentle head rocking I mentioned in the beginning of this post appears to be related to sleepy times. 

       It is true that rhythmical movements like the ones babies display can also be a symptom of mental retardation or other mental illness.  However, research has found no links in rhythmical movements in the first year and later mental illness.  In fact, one research found that higher levels of rhythmical movements in the first year is related to higher levels of later cognitive performance in boys (sorry, girls, not true for you, although this may simply be because boys are more active than girls, even as infants.)  Additionally, these researchers found that rhythmical movements at 13 months for both boys and girls in social settings can be a way to communicate (like when babies rock towards a toy or banging a stick on the ground) and may again indicate higher cognitive skills. 

     So, enjoy watching your infants head bang, bang spoons, and dance!  It certainly means that they are learning to control all of their different muscles and may mean they will be smarter later!

Sources:

Kroeker, R., Unis, A., & Scakett, G.P. (2002). Characteristics of early rhythmic behaviors in
children at risk for developmental disorders. Journal of American academy of child and adolescent psychiatry, 41(1), 67-74.

Schlinger, H. (1995). A behavior analytic view of child development. Plenum Press: NY.

Thelen E. (1979). Rhythmical stereotypies in normal human infants. Animal behavior, 27(3), 699-715.

The Importance of Family Traditions

       This is Q-ball's first Christmas.  I have always loved the holidays, but it is especially exciting to imagine seeing it all for the first time through my child's eyes.  Additionally, it is my husband's and mine first Christmas in our own home, so we are excited to establish our own family traditions.  Which leads to the question- how will Q-ball view the traditions we choose to establish?  What will they mean to her in future years?

Q-ball wants to be like her big cousin!!

      Well, in truth, due to infantile amnesia- the phenomenon that prevents humans from remembering pretty much everything that take place in the first 3.5 years of life and most of what takes place until age 5 or 6- she won't remember this holiday season.  Still, many child psychologists and others who study infants and children believe that these early years are some of the most important in shaping an individual's entire life. 

       The holidays are prime time to pass along cultural and familial traditions to future generations.  Indeed, it has been found that families who participate in regular routines and rituals (to include daily activities like family dinners and bedtime routines) have stronger relationships than those who do not.  These predictable activities create a safe environment for growing babies and children which fosters social and emotional development. While an occasional tantrum is no stranger to holiday activities, children are generally excited to copy their older friends' and relatives' activities, thus learning the familial and cultural traditions that shape this time of year. In fact, some psychologists believe that humans' innate ability of imitation is a means to ensure social interaction and "the proliferation of human culture." 

    Imitation serves two roles in child development- firstly, to develop new skills, but overtime, imitation also evolves to foster social interactions. As imitation and, consequently, social interactions become more complex, humans not only copy the actions of another, they also become the model for an action, an expereince known as synchronic imitation.  In one experiment, researchers attempted to see when this level of social interaction begins to occur. Researchers demonstrated tapping the hammer on the ground and then offered an identical hammer to toddlers ranging from 12 to 24 months.  At 18 months, toddlers began to copy the researcher's actions for a set period of time and continue to make eye contact with him, thus demonstrating the beginning of synchronic imitation, and by 24 months, most toddlers seemed to have mastered this concept.  

     This finding, paired with others like it, lead many psychologists to believe that by the middle of the second year, children are able to and want to maintain social interactions with others through shared actions.  Around this age then, it can be assumed, children will be actively engaged in watching and copying holiday traditions. They will likely want to help their parents, older siblings and cousins, or friends when decorate the tree, sing carols, hang the lights, frost the cookies, and, of course, open presents.  

      So, as far as establishing traditions for our first family Christmas, it seems the research indicates that greater emphasis should be placed on "Baby's Second Christmas."

Sources:

Eliot, L. (1999). What’s going on in there? How the brain and mind develop in the first five years of life. Bantam Books: USA.

HIll, M. (2000). Family Traditions. Family Life Month Packet 2000. Retrieved from http://ohioline.osu.edu/flm00/fs12.html

Nielson, M. (2006). The imitative behaviour of children and chimpanzees: A window on the transmission of cultural traditions.  Retrieved from http://www2.psy.uq.edu.au/~nielsen/primatologie_manuscript.pdf

The Science of Baby-Sign Language

    Increasingly, parents are using sign language to communicate with their infants, allowing them active communication with their pre-speaking babies (researchers refer to them as pre-lexical).  Numerous benefits have been tied to using sign language, including help in building language skills, increased IQ, and increased literacy skills. While these are obviously desirable results, my husband and I were drawn to the idea of signing with Q-ball as a way to increase our bond with her as we are better able to meet her needs through increased communication.  Not to mention the idea that we could have an earlier peak into her thoughts and personality. Super neat!

     At 8 months, Q-ball is now at the tail end of what is considered the optimal age for introducing sign language, according to Baby Sign Language Basics: Early Communication for Hearing Babies and Toddlers by Monta Briant, which we have been using as our guide.  We started using 7 signs (milk, diaper change, cat, book, rattle, mirror, and we later added eat) with her at about 5 months and have tried to practice them on a daily basis (although I must admit to took me awhile to make it a habit, and sometimes signing is the last thing that crosses my mind when trying to change a fussy, squirmy baby's diaper!) So far, we have not noticed her making any signs, but I can tell she is focusing on the signs when we make them, and she appears to get excited at the sign for "milk".

      Briant's book provides some great information as do other baby-signing resources.  But, they tend to focus on the benefits and how-tos, and do not necessarily describe how signing leads to these amazing results, so I did some research.  The study I found focused on "maternal multimodal communication"- basically using multiple methods to communicate with your infant.  Throughout the study, as with sign language, the two methods used are voice and movement or touch. 

     I found the results fascinating and another amazing example of the strong biological attachment between mother and infant (for those of are regular follows of my blog, this shouldn't come as a surprise...)  The researchers, as well as many other findings from previous studies, found that "motherese," defined as the way that mothers (and people in general) often talk to infants which includes increased changes in tone and a slower rate of speech, has evolved to meet the changing needs of infants as they develop.  In other words, mothers unconsciously provide the necessary level of support to allow their babies to learn language. 

      This is where sign language comes in.  The major way to assist infants is to communicate with them using "temporal synchrony" or visual motions and voice simultaneously. Researchers suspect that temporal synchrony serves as a way of grabbing the infant's attention. Additionally, it helps infants find word-object relations. According to the ecological perspective of development, infants use their increased senses to take in the language cues the mother provides. Likewise, according to the dynamic systems theory, the development of language is a symbiotic relationship in which the mother senses the infant's perceptual abilities and matches her style of communication accordingly.  

       The results of the study support both of these theories.  The researchers found that mothers decreased the amount of motion cues as infants aged and gained increased language abilities.  Additionally throughout all age groups studied, mothers used more hand motions with verbs than with nouns (so, within the context of the study, they were more likely to demonstrate a jump than to point to the hand puppet jumped).  This supports the fact that infants vocabularies contain more nouns than verbs.  

      So, how can you be a secure base for your baby as he learns language?  Use sign language!  Or, at the very least use lots of demonstrating actions and pointing to help your little along his path of cognitive development. 

Have you signed with your baby? What did you like most about the experience? Do you have any tips to share?

Sources:

Briant, M. (2004). Baby sign language basics: early communication for hearing babies and toddlers. Hay House: NYC.

Gogate, L., Bahrick,L., & Watson, J. (2000). A study of multimodal motherese: The role of temporal synchrony between verbal labels and gestures. Child Development, 71,(4), 878-894.

New and Improved: Treasure Basket

        Now that we have settled, I am able to improve upon the treasure basket that we are providing for Q-ball's exploration/play time.  This is an idea that I read about on several Montessori blogs and read about in How to Raise an Amazing Child the Montessori Way by Tim Seldin.

       The goal is to include "household objects and things from nature."  This way baby can explore the items with multiple senses.  Montessori herself often insisted on natural materials and avoided synthetic materials such as plastic.  Natural materials, according to followers of the Montessori method, are believed to be more beautiful, durable, and more stimulating to a child's senses.  

In The Joyful Child, Micheal Olaf has this to say about the material of toys-

It is very dangerous that wood is progressively disappearing from our lives. Wood is a material that is familiar and poetic; it gives a child a continuity of contact with a tree, a table, a floor. Wood does not cut, does not spoil, does not break easily, can last for a long time and live with the child. It can modify little by little the relationship between the objects which are timeless. Now toys are chemical and do not give pleasure. These toys break very soon and they do not have any future for the child. 

Below are what we are currently rotating in and out of Q-ball's treasure basket. In upcoming posts, I will discuss how and why we let her explore this treasure basket and other parts of the house with minimal interference.  

These items were picked up at the local market and allow us to make use of the what nature provides throughout the changing seasons.

Wooden bowls and cookie cutter from Goodwill.  Teaholder from personal collection (I've always wanted to use this phrase from art galleries...)

Leather wallet, satiny place mat, and silk cloth provide different touch sensations.

Mason jars that I have filled with rice, rosemary, and popcorn.  These allow Q-ball to explore with her sense of sound. She loves these! I also poked holes in the top of the rosemary jar to allow her to smell.  But, it's frankly not very strong- I'm looking for an item with a stronger smell.

Wooden utensils from Goodwill.

Have you created a treasure basket for your baby?  What have you included?  Any ideas for an item with a stronger smell to place in the Mason jar?

Sources:
Olaf, M. (2009) The first year. Retrieved from http://www.montessori.edu/0-3firstyeartext.html#Materials 
Seldin, T. (2006). How to raise an amazing child the Montessori way. DK Publishing:NY

This Goes in That a.k.a. The Long Telegram of Infant Containment

            With all of the boxes that have cluttered our home over the past week, Q-ball has had a lot to explore.  She’s been able to tip the boxes over, climb in them, pull out the paper, and use them as drums.  It’s made me wonder what exactly she understands about boxes and their purpose.  Turns out, quite a bit of research has been done studying the “categorization of infant containment,” so this Science Friday is devoted to what infants know about putting stuff in boxes, bags, baskets, or any other container.    

            Developmental psychologists generally believe that the earliest spatial concept that infants understand is “in” (compared to under, between, around, etc.).  They believe that knowledge of this concept is closely tied to comprehension of the word “in.”  Here are some of the findings:

1.    Infants as young as 3 months can determine spatial change, as has been demonstrated by the amount of time that infants stare as a dot’s location in relation to a bar (above, below, between.)  But, research shows that infants cannot determine spatial change in novel objects (defined as objects with which they are not familiar) until later.  That is, they know that a round dot that was above the bar is now below the bar, but if the dot is changed to a triangle which they have not seen, they are not able to make the cognitive leap that the triangle can also change positions in relation to the bar (or perform “abstract categorical representation” as researchers call it).  Some research has shown that infants cannot form spatial ideas about novel objects until 6 or even 9 months.

2.    Other researchers have demonstrated that infants as young as 2.5 months understand that a container with an open lid can have an object placed inside of it, whereas an object with a lid cannot.  After grasping this concept, infants can start to learn which objects can fit in containers.  So, they start to understand that a short box cannot hold a really tall spoon or that a small basket cannot hold a big ball.  This is known as forming categories of containment.

The study I read tried to merge the findings of the previous research described above- that is, it tried to see if infants can form categories of containment for novel objects.  Researchers looked to see if 6-month-old infants were able to understand containment in the following items, based upon the length the infants looked at the items and the act of placing one in another:

The researchers found that at 6-months, infants can make abstract categories of containment.  So, they understand that a teddy bear is inside of a basket, even if they have never seen the basket or they teddy bear before.

Some of the containers with which Q-ball is currently playing.

I believe that I have seen some of these concepts while observing Q-ball’s play.  In addition to the moving boxes, we have also been providing Q-ball with a few baskets and some bags- plenty of opportunities to have fun with containment.  She actively pulls toys out of the baskets and has started to return some of them.  However, she has yet to try to put anything into a bag, perhaps because it is not as open as the baskets.  Also, none of the items we are currently giving her provide opportunities for tight fitting containment exploration.  So, her Daddy will be happy to learn that I will need to go shopping to find some new toys!

Source:

Casasola, M. Cohen, L.B., & Chiarello, E. (2003). Six-month-old infants' categorization of containment spatial relations. Child Development, 74(3), 679-693.

The Science of Babywearing

            This week is International Babywearing Week , sponsored by Babywearing International.  My husband and I love babywearing.  While I heard all of the wonderful facts about babywearing ( baby cries less; baby is more attached to parents; healthier development for babies, especially premies,) I was initially drawn to it because, frankly, it was easier to carry Q-ball in a carrier than in my arms, especially when shopping or doing chores.   But, I recently read about the science behind some of the benefits of babywearing and learned about benefits that typically aren’t mentioned.  These have made me love babywearing even more!

            It’s a common fact that babies love motion- rocking in their parents’ arms, swinging in swings, and bouncing in chairs.  The reason behind this is that babies have a very sensitive vestibular system (ranking with touch in terms of most sensitive sense in a newborn), which controls the body’s ability to sense movement and balance.   The vestibular system is located in the inner ear (which explains why balance is sometimes affected during ear infections).  In adults, we know that our vestibular system is working when we don’t notice it; it is what keeps our field of vision constant when doing and activity like jogging- even though our eyes are bouncing up and down, our view remains steady.  When our vestibular system is off, dizziness and motion sickness can result.

 Now back to babies- in the womb, it’s one of the first brain structures to develop- at only 10 weeks old, a fetus can detect movement!  An eight-month fetus’s vestibular system is so developed that it actually sets off a baby’s first reflexes!  When a mama changes from sitting to standing, the change can activate the Moro reflex or startle reflex which is seen in newborns until about 3 months.  Even the fetus’s ability to position itself downward when it is time for labor and delivery is a result of a well-developed vestibular system.  After birth, nearly all newborn reflexes continue to be the result of activity in the vestibular system, including the doll’s eye reflex (in which baby will continue to look forward, although you may move his head) and asymmetrical neck reflex (identified by Gesell and discussed in this post.)  In fact, a human’s vestibular system reaches its peak of sensitivity between six to eight months of age.  So, any rocking or swinging of baby (like when baby is in a baby carrier) between these ages will especially activate the vestibular system. 

So, how does this help baby?  The vestibular system is the primary method that a newborn experiences their new surroundings, so it is likely that activating the vestibular system may improve their ability to take in all of the new sights and sounds.  This increased sensitivity could improve the development of motor, cognitive, and even emotional abilities. 

An experiment tested this hypothesis.  Infants between 3 to 13 months were put through 16 sessions of chair spinning, during which they were held by a researcher and spun around in a swivel chair.  Super fun for the infants!!  But, a control group was just held by the researchers in the swivel chair- no spinning and certainly not as much fun.  Well, the infants who got to spin around in the chairs also demonstrated more advanced development in reflexes and motor skills, especially walking, sitting, crawling, and standing.  This was even true for a set of fraternal twins- one of which had the joy of spinning in the chair and the other that just had to sit in the researcher’s lap. 

Another sign of the benefits of vestibular stimulation can be seen in neonatal units.  Preterm babies that are rocked, carried in baby carriers, or able to rock themselves in specially made baby water beds (I need to look into purchasing one of these as it could lead to 3 hours of uninterrupted sleep…) gained weight faster, breathed more regularly, slept more, and had more quiet, alert time than babies who did not experience vestibular stimulation. 

Parents also likely know one of the best aspects of continued vestibular stimulation.  A sleepy baby!  Babywearing provides as awesome opportunity to stimulate the vestibular system with the continuous, gentle rocking the babies (and toddlers!) feel.  Babies will be better able to experience the world around them, while being close to and encouraged by their parents.  So, strap on your baby carrier and start babywearing today!

We love our Erog and teething pads from RedCharlotte!

Sources:

"Babywearing International Resources." Babywearing International. Babywearing International, n.d. Web. 10 Oct 2011. <http://babywearinginternational.org/articles.php?article=1>.

Eliot, L. (1999). What’s going on in there? How the brain and mind develop in the first five years of life. Bantam Books: USA.

Maternal Attachment and Biological Differences

    Ainsworth’s original Strange Situation included only three classifications of maternal-infant attachment, as discussed in a previous post.  However, research since this time has uncovered that 15% to 85% of infants may not fit into one of these three categories, increasing with respect to the level of risk of the sample.  Infants in this new, fourth category are referred to as disorganized-disoriented or atypical.  During the Strange Situation, these infants lack a single, clearly defined coping strategy.  Instead, they appear confused or exhibit conflicting emotions and behaviors.  Many researchers have looked to biological differences to explain atypical attachment patterns .

            Research has found that biological differences can affect attachment classification.  Infants who have certain medical conditions exhibit behaviors that may alter typical maternal responses and, in the long term, may alter maternal-infant attachment.  An infant with Down Syndrome, for example, may be less emotional towards his caretakers and use different signs of distress.  Consequently, his mother may react differently to his signals.  In the case of some developmental or emotional disorders, biological differences serve as the cause of atypical attachment patterns.

            On the other hand, some biological conditions only have the appearance of affecting attachment patterns.  In the cases of medical conditions that manifest themselves in primarily physical terms, as in cerebral palsy, the physical actions of these infants may appear to mirror those of atypical attachment.  However, these movements are not necessarily indicative of underlying feelings of attachment or relationship patterns.  In cases of physical disabilities resulting in motor impairments, biological differences may attribute to atypical attachment classification, but this classification may reflect the actual maternal-infant attachment pattern. 

            Finally, atypical attachment patterns can physiologically express themselves, again indicating biological differences in the various attachment patterns.  As was previously stated, infants who are atypically attached do not display a single coping strategy during the Strange Situation, instead alternating between multiple patterns of emotion and behavior.  This is a sign of higher levels of stress within the infant.  Hertsgaard, Gunnar, Erickson, and Nachmia (1995) have discovered a significant relationship between the cortisol levels and atypically attached infants.  Cortisol is produced by the hypothalamicpituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system which often activates when typical coping mechanisms are not sufficient or external coping sources are not available.  Thus, during the Strange Situation atypical infants likely lack individual coping strategies to deal with the stressful circumstances, and they do not view their mothers as a reliable relief.   Hertsgaard’s et al. research did not determine the causality of this relationship, however, so it is not possible to determine if higher levels of cortisol are a cause or effect of atypical attachment with this data. 

However, other studies indicate that regulated levels cortisol are likely the result of secure attachment early in life.  The Aussie mama who blogs at Gullible New Parent did an amazing job analyzing this, so, instead of re-explaining what has already been explored, check out her site here if you are interested.

Barnett, D. Vondra, J.I., Butler, C.M. (1999). Atypical patterns of early attachment: Discussion and future directions. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 64(3), 172-192. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3181563 

Hertsgaard, L. Gunnar, M., Erickson, M.F., Nachmias, M. (1995). Adrenocortical responses to the Strange Situation in infants with disorganized/disoriented attachment relationships.  Child Development, 66(4), 1100-1106. Retrieved from