A Mother's Role in Pretend Play

 This is the first post of a mult-post Science Friday series that discusses research about toddler pretend play.

   Throughout the past several months, Q-ball has been extremely active in pretend play.  Given that New Baby should arrive any hour or day, she has especially been focused on diapering, wearing, and strollering all of her stuffed animals the past few weeks.  I know that other toddlers begin this same fascination with pretend play at a similar time, so I wanted to look into the possible causes of and factors that contribute to pretend play. In this Science Friday post, I will look at the mother's role in fostering pretend play.  But, first, a definition of pretend play.  Most research in the topic follows the definition established by Catherine Garvey in her study of children's play, which is "play in which actions, objects, persons, places, and other aspects of the here-and-now are transformed or treated non-literally."

Pretending this is a real bear.

     Child development psychologist Jean Piaget believed that pretend play started spontaneously in each individual child, without any outside influence.  Given Piaget's profound influence on the subject of child development, many followed his belief, and it was not until recently that research has been done on the topic.  In contrast to Piaget's view, a growing body of evidence is now examining how interpersonal relationships contribute to a toddler's pretend play, especially that of the caregiver. 
     The study I examined for this post followed nine middle-class, college-educated families, primarily focusing on the mother and toddler for seven visits from ages 12 months to 48 months. The results, then, are biased towards this demographic, but were very clear in their results for this group. This, also, is the demographic of which I am a part, so the study is relevant to me. Still, the researchers state these findings are consistent with other studies done on the topic.  Here are some of the findings:

• In all families, the mother was the first to initiate pretend play with her child at 12 months.  In only half of the cases was the child able to reciprocate any pretend play.  I thought this observation was especially fascinating as I would not have guessed that I had initiated pretend play with Q-ball as I strive to follow her lead. However, upon further reflection, I realize that I often employ techniques found within Playful Parenting and other play-focused books to ease the stress of transitions and can imagine that I once had us crawl to naptime like cats or some similar activity.
• Mothers were also found to prompt pretend play, primarily by asking their child open-ended questions about their pretending.  (i.e.- What is your dog eating? Where is the train going? Why is the doll sad?)
• By 24 months, the toddler is just as likely to initiate pretend play with the mother as he is with her.  No matter who initiates play, both mother and toddler seem to be equally responsive the other when it comes to reciprocating play. In this study, 24 months is deemed the most pivotal role in mother-toddler pretend play.  This observation is a little sad for me, as I'm already past this milestone for my first child!  And, she's still so young!
• For a young toddler, a mother's active role in pretend play lengthens the play and encourages more activity.  At the ages of 24 months and 36 months, the length of pretend play when the mother is involved is nearly twice as long as episodes of solo pretend play.  Additionally, children were much more vocal when the mother was involved, in most cases parroting the mother's comments. 
• However, by 48 months, children tend to be involved in pretend play for twice as long when they play alone than when they play with their mother. 
• Between 36 and 48 months, children begin to seek out similarly aged playmates with which to pretend, leading to the decline in mother-toddler pretend play.

Does your toddler like pretend play?  Do you find this findings to be true in your household?  

Source:
Haight, W. and Miller, P.J. (1992). The development of everyday pretend play: A longitudinal study of mothers' participation. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 38(3). 331-349.

Placenta Encapsulation III: Breastfeeding Help

This is the third post of this Science Friday series which explores placentophagia- the act of eating the placenta after birth. While this can take several forms for humans, one of the most common is through placenta encapsulation. This post analyzes several theories that have been proposed as the cause of placentophagia.  Check out the other posts here.

       The placenta plays an invaluable role in breastfeeding. Indeed, in all cases of lactation, whether placentophagia is involved or not, it is the birth of the placenta that initiates the body’s production of milk.   This afterbirth triggers the productions of hormones that start the production of breast milk.  (Lieberman, 2011) In Traditional Chinese Medicine, placentophagia is used to foster the mother and baby’s breastfeeding relationship by increasing the mother’s milk supply.  Recent studies have sustained this belief by demonstrating the placenta’s power in increasing milk supply. 

                Using mothers with whom doctors anticipated breastfeeding difficulties, researchers at Charles University in Prague, demonstrated that consuming the placenta increased milk production.  In this study, 210 mothers who had recently given birth consumed dried placenta within a period of two days.  Some mothers completed treatment immediately following delivery, while one mother waited two months to start treatment.  No mother experienced any negative symptoms, to include stomach pains or nausea.  In fact, some mothers enjoyed the taste!  Over 30% of mothers saw an increase of one ounce of milk in one feeding, and nearly 56% saw an increase of at least .7 ounces in one feeding.  The finding indicate that these early successes in breastfeeding continued, and many of the women in the study breastfed for many months.

                While these results are clearly a boon for mothers who want to breastfeed, the researchers findings do not immediately demonstrate what about placenta causes an increase in milk production.  Knowing that placenta is a high source of quality protein, the researchers gave another group of woman beef in a form identical to that of the placenta.  However, only one-third of these women experienced an increase in milk production, far less than the group that consumed placenta, leading the researchers to agree that the protein is not the source of the milk increase.  Using urine tests that measure progesterone and other hormones in postpartum women, the researchers currently believe that the hormones in placenta are the primary cause of increases in milk supply. 

 

Placenta Encapsulation II: Why Would I Do That?

This is the second post of this Science Friday series which explores placentophagia- the act of eating the placenta after birth. While this can take several forms for humans, one of the most common is through placenta encapsulation. This post analyzes several theories that have been proposed as the cause of placentophagia.  Check out the first post here.

   The previous post discussed some of the theories that are used to explain placentophagia.  I am not very convinced by any of those theories. However, I find the evolutionary and physiological reasons very impressive, and they actually convinced me to have placenta encapsulation done following labor and delivery.  

     The evolutionary and physiological reasons for placentophagia are primarily observed through maternal behavior.  Some observations, while relatively weak, indicate an increased attachment behavior between mother and infant.  Much stronger evidence supports the positive effects that placentophagia has on lactation, presumably because the placenta’s high estrogen and lactogen content.  As an avid proponent of breastfeeding, I find this finding one of the most compelling arguments for placentophagia.  Mothers currently face countless obstacles to breastfeeding; consequently, I find any method of easing a new mom’s breastfeeding journey is immeasurably important! 

        Another evolutionary effect, although one that may not yet be possible in humans, is the placenta’s impact on the maternal immune system.  Because the fetus and fetal placenta contain aspects of both the mother and the father, a mother’s immune system could reject some antigens found in the fetus’s blood.  In humans, this is observed when an Rh negative mother is carrying an Rh positive fetus.  During her first pregnancy, she creates antibodies to fight this seemingly invading species.  These antibodies could potentially harm future Rh positive fetuses.  Humans receive can receive a Rhogam shot to counteract this reaction.  In other mammals, however, placentophagia may serve to block the creation of the antibodies.  In this way, nature has provided a way to ensure the survival of mama and babies.  As someone who requires a Rhogam shot (I just had my third a few days ago!) and who hates shots, I’m hoping for more research on this topic for human use!

Source:
Kristal, M.B. (1980). Placentophagia: A biobehavioral enigma. Neuroscience and Biohehavioral Reviews, (4)141-150.

Placenta Encapsulation I: Why Would I Do That?

I haven't shared much on these pages, but I have been completing a wide-range of research for my upcoming labor and delivery. I thought I would use this space to share some of the research I've completed. This is the first post of our next Science Friday series which explores placentophagia- the act of eating the placenta after birth. While this can take several forms for humans, one of the most common is through placenta encapsulation. This post analyzes several theories that have been proposed as the cause of placentophagia.

Source: thefeministbreeder.com

     While nearly every mammal consumes its placenta after giving birth (a notable exception being marsupials who instead reabsorb the placenta, but do consume birth fluids), research has yet to conclusively find one overarching reason for placentophagia in mammals.  Currently, four theories are used to explain this seemingly innate mammalian behavior.  The first is that during birth, the mother, normally an herbivore, suddenly becomes carnivorous, only craving meat.  As someone who has previously given birth and has been a vegetarian for the past 12 years, I personally found this theory unlikely as I had no desire to eat meat following the birth of my first child, even when hospital’s dining facility continually ignored my vegetarian requests and primarily served me meat.  Like the rodents in studies that investigate this hypothesis, I still refused the meat!

                A second theory is that the mother simply craves food after following birth.  While any mother can attest to the fact that birth is certainly a physical feat that requires recovery, placentophagia has been observed in mammals that continue to eat throughout labor and delivery who, presumably, would not have an increase in hunger following the event.  The third theory again focuses on hunger, but this theory looks at a specific hunger for the placenta.  Research on this theory has been inconclusive as mammals that have not yet given birth will consume another animal’s placenta. 

                The final and perhaps most popular theory is that placentophagia is simply a way for mammals to maintain a clean nest in order to prevent the attraction of predators.  While this theory is straight-forward, it does ignore several refuting factors.  Firstly, as previously stated, nearly every mammal consumes its placenta.  This means that even the mightiest of predators, which are in little need to detract other mammals, takes the time to eat their placentas.  Secondly, animals who do not maintain a constant nesting site remain at the site of the birth to consume the placenta, actually putting themselves in greater risk of predators.  A final challenge to the nest theory, and the one I found most convincing, is the fact the placenta is not the only bodily expulsion during labor.  Blood and other amniotic fluids would also completely saturate the area, clearly leaving evidence of a nest, despite the removal of the placenta.  

       Each of these theories clearly has it's skeptics- check out next week's post to learn more evolutionary (and, in my mind, convincing) rationales!

Source:
Kristal, M.B. (1980). Placentophagia: A biobehavioral enigma. Neuroscience and Biohehavioral Reviews, (4)141-150.

The Social Patterns of a Two-Year Old

  While I was studying child development, I was fascinated by the research of Arnold Gesell, so I was excited when I discovered that the Gesell Institute of Human Development has a series of books that describe your child year by year. When Q-ball turned one, I posted one of my favorite bits from the book here, and at 18 months, I shared Gesell's theory of disequilbrium. (If you're still following links, here's my overview of Gesell's research.) As I just completed, Your Two-Year-Old, I wanted to again share my favorite figure what that book. 
   Using long-term observations, the Gesell Institute determined that at two-years-old, a child is much more likely to talk to adults than to other children.  In these interactions, the two-year-old will likely use two or three word phrases rather than single-word sentences. However, the youngster is still certainly controlling the conversation- choosing to not always answer when the adult addresses him or just repeating the adult's original comment.  If a two-year-old does speak to someone else his age, the conversation is typically an attempt to maintain control over his space or stuff- "no, mine!" or "me want ball."  While his verbalization is increasing overall, this is the last year of life that a child is more likely to say "no" through motor behavior rather than verbally.  When given a request that he simply does not wish to follow, he may just walk away, look away, or continue to play. 
   All this being said, the two-year-old's favorite person to talk to is himself!  This makes sense given that these little ones are still firmly in their egocentric phase.  This self-talk is often easily observed during independent play, especially imaginary play.  At times, this self-talk may move towards an adult when the child wants to brag about all of his accomplishments- cleaning up by himself, feeding his own bear, or using the toilet alone. 

What's your two-year-old talking about?

The Benefits of Following Your Child's Lead

   A key aspect of creating a Montessori-inspired environment is to ensure that the teacher or parent follows the child's lead.  As I explained in this post, teachers or parents should work not to direct a child's play or routines.  I have read that studies that look at the effectiveness of a Montessori education have found that children in Montessori classrooms preform on par or slightly better than their peers in non-Montessori environments on academic assessments.  However, studies have found that children in Montessori environments tend to foster greater "concentration, confidence, and independence" in addition to more respect for their classmates and even creativity, which is especially interesting as many of Dr. Montessori's critics focus on her views towards fantasy and creative play.  For this Science Friday, I want to focus on a study that explores the relationship between a mother's directing of her toddler's play and future cognitive and social functions. 
   While the study does not focus mention Montessori practices, it compares cognitive and social functions in 4.5 year old children based upon the extent to which their mother's directed their play beginning at age 2. The researchers decided that 2 years-old was an important age to start observations as it is a time when children have the ability to understand basic verbal communications but still require a caretaker's direct instructions to complete and understand most tasks.  By age 4.5 years, however, much less support from caretakers is necessary. 

Toddlers can certainly come up with some creative games when allowed to lead!

   For this study, researchers observed mothers and their children during two home visits that included daily activities and a play session that included standardized toys as well as an in-office visit that included a play session.  The study took place over a period of 2.5 years.  Standardized tests that have been approved for these age groups were used to determine cognitive abilities.  Social behaviors were measured based upon observations of two specific behaviors- responsiveness (i.e. a child's ability to respond to instructions) and initiating (i.e. the child's ability to direct his mother's attention to an activity.)
   I believe that the findings in this study very much support using Montessori methods at home or in a classroom.  The children whose mothers consistently practiced "maintaining" (asking questions or making comments concerning an activity on which a child was working or responding to a child's requests) versus "directing" (giving specific verbal or non-verbal instructions for the child to follow, providing few options) had higher cognitive and language skills between age 1 and 3.5 years.  Additionally, maintaining also proved to have significant positive effects on responsiveness for these same ages.  Researchers believe that practicing maintaining supports cognitive and communication skills in early children as it works within their limited attention spans and current abilities without forcing them to shift focus. 
   The study revealed the children whose mothers practiced maintaining would ultimately have more success in "joint learning situations."  This is based upon two findings: First, at 3.5 years old, maintaining increased a child's social responsiveness, which ultimately seemed to improve his ability to initiate activities. Secondly, by 4.5 years, maintaining was directly related to a child's increased ability to establish and then meet goals. 
   While many parents may believe that being directing will increase responsiveness, this study and others (one additional example- a study that analyzed conversations between toddlers and mothers showed a mother's requests were more often followed when she adjusted the request to acknowledge the child's current focus) indicate that respecting the toddler's thoughts and activities will ultimately lead to greater success for completing immediate tasks and for longer-term cognitive and social skills.

Sources:
Crain, W. (2011). Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications. Prentice Hall:Boston. 
Landry, S.H., Smith, K.E., Swank P.R., &  Miller-Loncar, C.L. (2000). Early maternal and child influences on children's later independent cognitive and social functioning.  Child Development, 71(2 ) pp. 358-375

The Importance of Routines for Toddlers

   I haven't seen or visited a parents' group, book, show, or website that did not stress the importance establishing routines with children.  These sources seem to list endless benefits of routines:

• Encouraging self-control in toddlers
• Preventing power struggles with parents and children
• Easing transitions for children
• Learning social skills and cultural norms
• Developing language skills

  However, I haven't really seen many studies that back up the benefits of routines.  This is not to say that I question their importance or ability to help toddlers (and parents) survive everyday life.  As I have stated previously on this blog, often parents are more knowledgeable than researchers, and lab findings often just support what parents already know (with the exception of the connection between fevers and teething as explained in this post. I've always questioned these results as Q-ball has had a fever every time she was teething...)
  Still, for this Science Friday, I wanted to explore any findings that further validate the role of routines.  Surprisingly, I wasn't able to find very many hard numbers.  But, most of the studies seem to focus on the importance of bedtime routines. This makes sense considering that one of the studies stated that sleep problems are one of the most common concerns of parents- 20 to 30 percent of infants and toddlers have sleep difficulties.  

I can't even get a picture of this busy toddler without it blurring- how is she not sleepy?!?

   In a 2009 study published by Sleep, 405 mothers who identified having an infant or toddler with a sleep problem participated in 3-week study that measured the success of groups who established bedtime routines to control groups who established no routines.  Mothers who followed new routines were instructed to give their child a bath, a massage, and then conduct quiet activities like cuddling and singing.  These mothers also ensured lights were turned off or dimmed 30 minutes prior to bedtime.  
   The results very significantly showed improvements in the amount of time it took to put the child to sleep and in the number of nightly wakings.  As a bonus, the study also showed that maternal mood and child sleep problems are intimately linked.  As sleep improved, so did the mothers' quality of life- she was less tense and, of course, less tired.  
   As a parent with a 22-month old who still regularly wakes 4-7 times each night and regularly takes 40 minutes to fall asleep, I find any studies on sleep interesting. Although, I must give Q-ball credit, we have had some nights in the past month were she has slept for over 4 hours at a time! And, I can certainly relate to the connection between mothers' quality of life and sleep (just ask my husband!)  Here at Q-ball's household, we have a very established bedtime routine- brush teeth; potty; bathe; put on PJs; read book with Daddy; kick Daddy out of room; nurse; crawl onto (or next to) mattress; and direct Mama to rub back. All of this makes me wonder- what would my nights be like without a routine?!?!

Sources:
n.a. (2012). Love, learning, and routines. Zero to three. Retrieved from http://www.zerotothree.org/child-development/social-emotional-development/love-learning-and-routines.html
ScienceDaily. Retrieved February 8, 2013, from http://www.sciencedaily.com­ /releases/2009/05/090501090916.htm 

Sussman, F. (2011). The power of using everyday routines to promote young children's language and social skills. Retrieved from http://www.hanen.org/Helpful-Info/Articles/Power-of-Using-Everyday-Routines.aspx

A Toddler's Nutrient Needs

Interested in nutrition for your growing infant or toddler?  Check out my other nutrition posts here!
 
 The other day my husband commented, "You've gone dip crazy!"  And, it's true. I make us 1-3 different kinds of dips each week. But, we love eating them, and they are healthy. At least, I have been assuming they were healthy. I realized I hadn't done much research into toddler nutrition in quite awhile.  So, for this Science Friday, I will explore what the nutrient needs of a toddler are, especially working to find out what drives each of these nutrient needs. I did quite a bit of Internet research and discovered that there is not too much information on toddler nutrition, especially for nursing toddlers. In fact, most sources that focus on feeding children ages 1-5 do not mention nursing, despite the fact that the World Health Organization recommends that children continue breastfeeding until at least 2 years old.

    It is true that the USDA has a MyPlate Food Guide for children, and it's also true this guide does not mention breastfeeding.  Additionally, this guide places a pretty high emphasis on a diet rich in grains and dairy products derived from cows' milk. While no one in our family suffers from any wheat or dairy intolerance, we have seen and felt rather dramatic changes by limiting these products. So, I'm a little hesitant to use this as my only guide. The guide I found most helpful in determining a healthful diet for a toddler is published by the World Health Organization and is available here. 

Here's a rundown of the five most important nutrient needs of a breastfeeding toddler (of course, there are many more nutrients a growing child needs, but these seem to be most important for growth AND are those in which a toddler is most likely deficient):

1. Protein, about 16g/day:  This is more protein per pound of body weight than an adult requires!  In addition to aiding with all of the growth a toddler is doing, protein helps a toddler maintain muscular strength, maintain health of ligaments, joints, and tendons, and helps maintain immunity by carrying oxygen throughout the blood stream.  Additionally, protein helps maintain brain cells to help with all of the learning that a toddler is doing!  Found in animal products like meat, eggs, and legumes.
2. Fat, 30-45% of calories should be from fat:  Most adults run from fat, but it's very important for growing toddlers!  Fats surround nerve cells in the brain, helping to protect it. Fats also aid in the development of the brain and central nervous system.  Additionally, fats add in the absorption of other essential nutrients.  Found in breastmilk, dairy products, oils.
3. Iron, 7mg/day: Toddlers are almost entirely reliant on foods other than milk and breastmilk for their iron needs as milk is not a source of iron.  As such, a study in 2007 found that 2.7 million children are iron deficient.  Iron is used to make red blood cells, which carry oxygen throughout the body.  Toddlers with iron deficiencies are at risk for developmental delays, including retarded growth and learning difficulties.  Found in meat (especially liver), legumes.
4. Vitamin A: Aids in bone growth and vision development. Protects against illness.  Found in colorful fruits and veggies- carrots, sweet potatoes, red peppers, spinach, etc. 
5. Vitamin D: While most people believe that they get enough vitamin D from the sun, new studies are questioning this assumption.  Children especially need vitamin D to help absorb calcium to help build strong bones and teeth.  Found in fish, eggs, and fortified foods.  (Given that we eat very few fortified foods, this is the nutrient that I find is most difficult to ensure Q-ball gets enough of. As such, vitamin D is the one supplement that I give Q-ball.)

With my new knowledge of toddler nutritional needs, I still believe that my dips are a healthy choice for Q-ball!  Here are some of our favorites recipes with a bonus explanation of their nutritional value from yours truly!  (I guess that's the least I could do as I'm clearly borrowing all of these recipes from others.)

1. Black bean spinach dip: This is a yummy way to get a toddler to eat spinach, a good source of iron.  It's bean-based, so it provides a decent amount of protein and fiber (which, while not mentioned previously, is typically very important for toddlers.) Another added bonus is the salsa- sources of vitamin C, like tomatoes, aid in the absorption of iron.  And, for those of you who are afraid of spinach, I promise you won't notice it!
2. Chocolate-chip cookie dough: Yes, you read that correctly! And, yes, it's amazing!  High in protein, and with minimal sugar (I typically use 2-3 T of brown sugar for the whole recipe, but I've used less and added stevia drops instead.) Also, a great source of fiber.  And, if you use dark chocolate chips, you'll get the antioxidants in chocolate. 
3. Sweet Potato Hummus: This combines two amazing foods.  Chickpeas again provide iron, protein, and fiber.  Sweet potatoes add lots of vitamin A and even more fiber.
4. Avocado-White Bean Dip: Again bean-based, so good for protein and fiber.  The avocado provides extra healthy fats for your growing toddler.
5. Carrot-Cashew Miso Spread: I found this recipe in the cookbook Clean Start.  The carrots are a great source of vitamin A, while the cashews provide fats.  The miso provides the benefits that come with all fermented foods- high levels of vitamin B and naturally-occurring probiotics. Miso is also high in fiber and antioxidants.  This is also a great way to introduce what might be the acquired taste of fermented foods to newbies. 

Sources:
10 nutrients that every child needs. (n.d.) Retrieved from http://www.babycenter.com/0_10-nutrients-that-every-child-needs_1201019.bc
Coleman, E.(n.d.) Very important nutrients during the toddler stage. Retrieved from http://healthyeating.sfgate.com/very-important-nutrients-during-toddler-stage-6328.html.
World Health Organization. (2009). Infant and young child feeding. Retrieved from http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2009/9789241597494_eng.pdf

Music and a Baby's Brain

  As I have mentioned in several of my updates, Q-ball loves music.  "Music" was one of the first signs she made, and she quickly started asking to listen to music.  We get all sorts of CDs from the library (rather archaic in these modern times, I know...).  Sometimes we have the music playing in the background, and sometimes we dance along.  I've also created a music box for her with several instruments (maracas, a tambourine, xylophone, a castanet, and bells) that we take out every few weeks.

Q-ball, actively engaged with music.

   We explore music because Q-ball likes it.  But, I know that I've always heard lots reports about parents playing music for babies, even fetuses, because of its benefits to a developing brain.  I was surprised to read in Einstein Never Used Flash Cards, then, that these benefits are largely based on studies that have been overblown by the media.  The basis for what is now commonly referred to as the "Mozart Effect" (i.e., that idea that listening to music enhances brain development or increases a person's IQ) started after a study in 1993 at the University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh demonstrated that students received higher tests scores after listening to Mozart.  
     While the media latched on to this point, the lead researcher tried to point out that the participants in the study were college students (so, not babies), the effects only lasted 10 to 15 minutes after listening to Mozart (so, not permanent brain changes), and the test only looked at spatial intelligence (so, just one tiny aspect of intelligence.)  More importantly, in 1999, Nature and Psychological Science officially renounced the findings from the original Mozart study!  Despite many attempts, other researchers were never able to repeat the original findings.  Obviously, no one told the many music and toy manufacturers that advertise with these findings today!
   But, just because music doesn't increase a baby's IQ, doesn't mean that there are not benefits.  And, it certainly doesn't mean that babies don't notice music.  While the research into this field is still rather new, studies have confirmed the following:

• Humans are innately musical and, even as infants, can use music as a form of communication. (We are the only such species.) 
• Infants listen carefully to music and can pick up even subtle changes.  Research has shown music alters a baby's heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration.
• Brain responses to music are identical in adults and in infants, proving that even at this young age, the brain is able to process music.
• All cultures seem to have motherese in which people speak to infants musical tones. (To read more about motherese, check out this post.)
• Early introduction to music does affect the organization of a person's musical brain.  So, early exposure to music may increase the likelihood that a person may be more musically inclined later in life.
• Studies have shown that music can be used as a reinforcement to encourage learning.  Premature newborns have been taught to strengthen sucking, leading to their eventual ability to self-feed.  Music is also positively used to "cue" various activities to help schedule a toddler or baby's day.
• Music can enhance listening skills, language development, motor coordination, and cooperation.

   So, how can you provide these wonderful benefits for your child?  The benefits of music are most seen when children are actively involved.  While music played in the background can change create a certain mood in a room, it does not necessarily encourage active engagement by the child.  To play an active role, a child should be encouraged to dance, sing, or make music themselves.  Even small steps like taking the time to point out changes in a piece of music that is playing in the background increases a child's active engagement with music.  
    Despite the mixed results from research, everyone seems to agree that music is a great and innately human way to bond.  So, perhaps the best benefit from music is an addition opprotunity to bond with your child!

Sources:
Fox, D.B. (2000).  Music and the baby's brain: Early experiences. Music Educators Journal, 87(2), 23-27.
Hirsh-Pasek, K. & Golinkoff, R.M. (2003). Einstein never used flash cards. Rodale: USA.
Hodges, D.A. (2000). Implications of music and brain research. Music Educators Journal, 87(2), 17-22.
Standley, J.M. (2001). The power of contingent music for infant learning. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 149, 65-71.

Disequilibrium at the Half-Year

   As Q-ball very quickly approaches 18 months of life, I am reminded of what I consider to be yet another fascinating observation by Gesell. 
    By observing over 10,000 infants and children, Gesell concluded that all children go through predictable stages of development, but the timing (starting points and length) are specific to each child.  The stages are composed of periods of equilibrium  and disequilibrium.  As you may imagine, the periods of disequilibrium can be tough on the child. Rapid growth and development can lead to issues with eating, sleeping, and behavior.  Consequently, these times can also be rough on parents.  And guess what Gesell's first period of disequilibrium is?  18 months!  
     As you can see in the diagram below, Gesell's stages of development progress in a spiral pattern- the periods of disequilibrium happening around the half-year and the periods of equilibrium occurring at the year mark.    

Photo credit: centerforparentingeducation.org

    So, what behaviors can I expect around this time period?

• Difficult, impatient (occasionally)
• Frustrated when she can’'t communicate, cries or tantrums when not understood (I can see the frustration, but luckily we don't have too many tantrums.)
• Can'’t make body do what she wants (I really haven't observed this.)
• Can'’t do what she is asked, if she doesn't ’want to do it (Hmm....this is an interesting idea. I've always thought of reluctance to do something you don't want to do as a choice. I certainly see that she is starting to exert her opinions about what we do and don't do.)

  If your child is hitting a "half-year" and you've noticed some out of character behaviors, don't despair!  He'll will swing back to equilibrium in no time!

Source:
Halverson, L.& Guddemi, M. (2008). Stages of development: Ages 2 to 7.  Retrieved from http://www.gesellinstitute.org/pdf/AgesAndStagesHandout.pdf
Understanding your child: A development point of view. (n.d.) The Gesell Institute. Retrieved from http://www.gesellinstitute.org/pdf/DevelopmentalPOV.pdf

How a Baby Learns to Talk: Part III

This is the third part of a Science Friday series on how a baby learns to talk.  Check out the first post here and the second post here.

    We have looked at how babies begin to babble and then say specific words.  But, how do they know in what order to put the words?  While Q-ball isn't in this stage yet, she has started combining some signs with the correct word order.  For the phrases she uses, I assume she is mirroring the phrases that I use with her.
    However, research has shown (in a fancy experiment involving Sesame Street puppets...) that toddlers between 16-to-18 months recognize the importance of word order. Specifically, they can tell the difference between phrases like "Mama is feeding Q-ball" vs. "Q-ball is feeding Mama."  This assumed understanding of word order is further verified by the fact that the vast majority of toddlers' first two word phrases are in the proper order.  Think "more banana," "I want," "get down," etc.  As was mentioned in the first post of this series, Noam Chomsky's very widely accepted theory of Universal Grammar states that all humans are innately wired to know the general form that any language takes.  In the case of word order, Chomsky's theory tells us that humans innately know structure dependence, so toddlers' correct use of word order goes above and beyond mirroring the phrases of those around them and is, instead, part of the the human brain's innate capacity of language learning. 
     Following two-word phrases, toddlers go even deeper into forming and practicing grammar rules.  Much of the research and observation on the subject of language learning  actually focuses on the mistakes and pauses that young children make as part of the learning process.  For example, as toddlers form increasingly complex sentences, they typically pause between noun and verb phrases rather than pause in the middle of a phrase. ("I want...the blue pants" vs. I want the...blue pants.")  This examples shows researchers that, as part of structure dependence, humans innately seem to know various parts of speech within a language.
    Again focusing on the mistakes that young language learners make, researchers believe that humans innately know that changes change be made to the beginning or ending of a word.  In this case, toddlers typically overregularize. So, they will add "-s" to goose, deer, and foot.  Or, they will add "-ed"  to run, do, or sit.  Scientists believe that this is a child's way of creating and applying their own language rules.
    While grammar rules vary from language to language, the two rules mentioned above (specific parts of speech and adding beginning or endings to words) are part of Universal Grammar.  As such, all children, despite their native language, have been observed making these same advances in grammar development. 

Source:

Eliot, L. (1999). What's Going on in There? Bantam Books: NY, NY.
Crain, W. (2011). Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications. Prentice Hall:Boston.

How a Baby Learns to Talk Part II

This is the second part of a Science Friday series on how a baby learns to talk.  Check out the first post here.

     After practicing the formation of words through babbling, babies try to actually form words.  At 16 months, Q-ball is currently at this stage.  While we still have plenty of "eh! eh! eh!" noises when she wants to get our attention, she is starting to try to repeat words that she hears Daddy and I say.  With her active use of sign language, I can see that she is very eager to get her ideas across, so it makes sense that she wants to move beyond sign language to form words. 

   As stated in the first post of the series, humans are innately wired to create language.  Beyond this, scientists also believe that humans innately understand three critical ideas about words:

1. Words refer to a whole object, not a specific part.  (So, Q-ball knows that "book" means the whole book, not just the cover or pages.)
2. Words describe all like items, not just an individual item. (So, Q-ball knows that "book" does not just refer to the book that we read her before bedtime, but all objects with bound pages.)
3. A object just has one name.  

Practicing the word "percussion"

  Admittedly, when I read these rules, I started thinking of exceptions, but I imagine that they are critical rules for language learning.  These rules also made me wonder how exactly Q-ball would define "milk", but now that she is also saying "Mama" regularly, I won't spend to much energy pondering this question.

   With these rules in mind, between 12 and 18 months, babies practice saying a few words here and there.  They may practice some words, and then not say them again for sometime. Interestingly, researchers seem to believe that "fifty is the magic number" when it comes to speaking.  Once a child can say 50 words, she starts to add words very rapidly- often adding multiple words in a single day!

   Why does this "explosion" of words happen?  Between 13 and 20 months, scientists have used electrical focal testing to discover that children's brains grow increasingly specialized to respond to words.  Early in this period, they use part of their cerebral cortex to distinguish between words and sounds that they know and those they don't.  But, by 20 months, toddlers begin to activate a more specialized area of the left parietal lobe, which is the part of the brain that stores word meanings.  It's remarkable to think of all of this happening in your precious, growing child!

     Here are a few more quick, fun facts about a baby's first words:

• Most babies begin to understand the meaning of certain words (names, no, milk, etc) as early as 9 or 10 months.
• At 12 months, the average child knows about 70 words.
• At 12 months, the average child speaks 6 words.  
• Once a child understands the meaning of a certain word, there is typically a 5-month delay until he can speak that word.
• Between ages 2 and 6 years, it is estimated that children may learn up to 8 words in a single day. So, if you child is sleeping for 12 hours a day, that is more than one word every 2 hours!

   So, now that toddlers know all of these words, what happens next?  Check out a future Science Friday to learn about grammar learning in toddlers!

Source:

Eliot, L. (1999). What's Going on in There? Bantam Books: NY, NY.